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30 years after the detection of SN1987A neutrinos

On February 23, 1987, just before 30 years from today, the neutrinos emitted from the supernova explosion SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, approximately 160,000 light-years away, reached the earth. Kamiokande, the predecessor detector of Super-Kamiokande, detected the 11 emitted neutrinos. Worldwide, it was the first instance of the detection of the emitted neutrinos from the supernova burst, and it served a big step toward resolving the supernova explosion system. In 2002, Dr. Masatoshi Koshiba, a Special University Professor Emeriuts of the University of Tokyo, was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics for this achievement.

Before the explosion of supernova SN1987A (right) and after the explosion (left) Anglo-Australian Observatory/David Malin

Kamiokande, the pioneer of neutrino research

Kamiokande detector was a cylindrical water tank (16 m in diameter and height) with 1000 of the world’s largest photomultiplier tubes inside it, and it was laid 1000 m underground in Kamioka-town, Yoshiki-gun, (currently Hida-city) Gifu Prefecture, Japan. (Currently the site of Kamiokande is used for KamLAND experiment.) Kamiokande was devised by Prof. Koshiba who started the observation in 1983. Originally, it was constructed for detecting the proton decay phenomenon, but it was modified for the solar neutirno observation. By the end of 1986, the detector modification was completed and the observation began.

Inside of Kamiokande detector

Overview of Kamiokande detector

Prof. Koshiba working in the tank

Prof. Kajita and Prof. Nakahata (then PhD students) tuning up the data aquision system in the mine

The day of detection of the supernova neutrinos

On February 25, 1987, two days after the observation of supernova SN1987A through naked eyes, a fax was sent from Pennsylvania University to the University of Tokyo to inform them about the supernova explosion. Soon after receiving the fax, Prof. Yoji Totsuka asked the researcher in Kamioka to send the magnetic tapes that recorded the Kamiokande data. (At that time, the information network was not developed, so the data was delivered physically).

The fax sent from Pennsylvania University to inform about the supernova explosion.

On February 27, when the magnetic tapes arrived at the laboratory in Tokyo, Prof. Masayuki Nakahata (currently the spokesperson of Super-Kamiokande experiment), who was then a PhD student immediately started the analysis. On the morning of February 28, while Prof. Nakahata printed out the analysis plot between the detection time and number of photo-sensors that detect the light, Ms. Keiko Hirata, a Master’s student found a peak, obviously different from the noise in the distribution. It was the exact trace to detect the neutrinos from SN1987A. (A two minutes blank period due to a regular system maintenance is recorded in the plot, at a few minutes before the explosion. If the explosion occurred during this period, Kamiokande could not have detected the SN1987A neutrinos.) After a detailed analysis, it was clear that Kamiokande detected 11 neutrinos for 13 seconds after 16:35:35 on February 23, 1987.

THe magnetic tape recorded SN1987A data

The printout of Kamiokande data and the envelope which stores the printout in. “Keep carefully Y.T.” written by Prof. Youji Totsuka.

The printout of the data. Horizontal axis shows time (from right to left and one line as 10 seconds) and the vertical axis shows the number of hit photo-sensors of each event (approximately proportional to the energy of the event). The obvious peak is the signal of neutrinos from SN1987A. The blank period due to the detector maintainance was recorded a few minutes before the signal.

When Prof. Nakahata finished the analysis and reported to Prof. Koshiba on the morning of March 2, Prof. Koshiba instructed him to investigate the entire data for the presence of similar signals. Under a gag rule, researchers analyzed the 43 days data of Kamiokande on March 2 to March 6, and obtained conclusive evidence that the occurrence of the peak was only from the signal of the supernova SN1987A; further, they published these findings as an article. Here are the the signatures of researchers who wrote the article.

The subsequent development of neutrino research

The Kamiokande’s detection of the supernova neutrinos became a trigger to recognize the importance of neutrino research, and the construction of Super-Kamiokande, whose volume is about 20 times larger than that of Kamiokande, was approved. Super-Kamiokande started observation from 1996 and discovered the neutrino oscillation in 1998. In 2015, Prof. Takaaki Kajita was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this achievement. SN1987A made a worldwide breakthrough in neutrino research, including the K2K experiment, T2K experiment and KamLAND experiment.

If a supernova explosion in our galaxy occurs now, Super-Kamiokande will detect approximately 8,000 neutrinos, almost 1000 times greater than those detected 30 years ago. Further, it is expected that the detailed mechanism of supernova explosion will be revealed and we will understand the stars or our universe in depth. In our galaxy, the supernova explosion is expected to occur once in every 30-50 years. It may occur at this very moment. The neutrinos from the supernova will be detected in mere 10 seconds. Super-Kamiokande continues the observation and will not miss any explosion moment.

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Nine facts about neutrinos

Images: Kamioka Observatory,

Merry Christmas! I spent time with my dear and sweet Kim. Let's go #furtherthanbefore with our #pathwaytothestars where get to explore solutions to worldwide issues, directing malcontent toward a refocus of their energies to #longevity and other sciences of #physics #biotechnology and #neuroscience through entertainment that takes us on a #scifi #fantasy journey with #strongfemaleleads #strongmalerolemodels and a beautiful #spaceopera with plenty of #politicalsciencefiction in the mix. (at Gene Leahy Mall) https://www.instagram.com/p/BrUuZFvgda1/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=s26phhseo3jb

Author – Matthew J. Opdyke Matthew J Opdyke is a published Science Fiction Author with a passion to take his audience on journey's into the cosmos and to inspire his audience to look at the world with a new vision of futurism and enhancing a state of mind toward progression.

Pathway to the Stars: Part 1, Vesha Celeste Posted on October 6, 2018 by Matthew Opdyke (FTB) Soon to be released (eBook-Kindle, Oct 9, 2018), is the first in a latched-on (or related) series, Pathway to the Stars: Part 1, Vesha Celeste. This will be a slightly more descriptive portion that goes into more detail of the first character introduced, Vesha Celeste. Please pre-order, read, review, comment, and enjoy! Thank you! Vesha Celeste journeys with Yesha Alevtina and her dream-angel, Sky, following a long life of high hopes, dreams, and professional achievements in astronomy and astrophysics. Yesha shows and teaches Vesha about biopods, spaceports, tech cities that are hidden, cloaked with invisibility, and located solar-system-wide. She introduces Vesha to the Virtual Universe and teaches her how Eliza Williams worked with Yesha and James Cooper to develop all of her advances and designs. There is a lot for her to learn, in this more-detailed prequel to a giant space opera awaiting humanity, in their quest to save the Universe, one very important step at a time. Enjoy Vesha’s beginning journey, in the first of a multi-story series, called Pathway to the Stars! https://matthew-opdyke-ftb.com/2018/10/06/pathway-to-the-stars-part-1-vesha-celeste/ #scifi #strongfemalelead #fantasy #spaceopera #biotechnology #nanotechnology #politicalscifi #physics #theoreticalphysics #darkmatter #utopian #hope #edifying #entertainment https://www.instagram.com/p/BomBkaNHxWv/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=19fgl64n8927t

The Universe's Brightest Lights Have Some Dark Origins

Did you know some of the brightest sources of light in the sky come from black holes in the centers of galaxies? It sounds a little contradictory, but it’s true! They may not look bright to our eyes, but satellites have spotted oodles of them across the universe. 

One of those satellites is our Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. Fermi has found thousands of these kinds of galaxies in the 10 years it’s been operating, and there are many more out there!

Black holes are regions of space that have so much gravity that nothing - not light, not particles, nada - can escape. Most galaxies have supermassive black holes at their centers - these are black holes that are hundreds of thousands to billions of times the mass of our sun - but active galactic nuclei (also called “AGN” for short, or just “active galaxies”) are surrounded by gas and dust that’s constantly falling into the black hole. As the gas and dust fall, they start to spin and form a disk. Because of the friction and other forces at work, the spinning disk starts to heat up.

The disk’s heat gets emitted as light - but not just wavelengths of it that we can see with our eyes. We see light from AGN across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the more familiar radio and optical waves through to the more exotic X-rays and gamma rays, which we need special telescopes to spot.

About one in 10 AGN beam out jets of energetic particles, which are traveling almost as fast as light. Scientists are studying these jets to try to understand how black holes - which pull everything in with their huge amounts of gravity - somehow provide the energy needed to propel the particles in these jets.

Many of the ways we tell one type of AGN from another depend on how they’re oriented from our point of view. With radio galaxies, for example, we see the jets from the side as they’re beaming vast amounts of energy into space. Then there’s blazars, which are a type of AGN that have a jet that is pointed almost directly at Earth, which makes the AGN particularly bright.  

Our Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has been searching the sky for gamma ray sources for 10 years. More than half (57%) of the sources it has found have been blazars. Gamma rays are useful because they can tell us a lot about how particles accelerate and how they interact with their environment.

So why do we care about AGN? We know that some AGN formed early in the history of the universe. With their enormous power, they almost certainly affected how the universe changed over time. By discovering how AGN work, we can understand better how the universe came to be the way it is now.

Fermi’s helped us learn a lot about the gamma-ray universe over the last 10 years. Learn more about Fermi and how we’re celebrating its accomplishments all year.

Make sure to follow us on Tumblr for your regular dose of space: http://nasa.tumblr.com.

Interesting project. :)

How To Prove Einstein’s Relativity For Less Than $100

“But the fact that you can see cosmic ray muons at all is enough to prove that relativity is real. Think about where these muons are created: high in the upper atmosphere, about 30-to-100 kilometers above Earth’s surface. Think about how long a muon lives: about 2.2 microseconds on average. And think about the speed limit of the Universe: the speed of light, or about 300,000 kilometers per second. If you have something moving at the speed of light that only lives 2.2 microseconds, it should make it only 0.66 kilometers before decaying away. With that mean lifetime, less than 1-in-10^50 muons should reach the surface. But in reality, almost all of them make it down.”

Relativity, or the idea that space and time are not absolute, was one of the most revolutionary and counterintuitive scientific theories to come out of the 20th century. It was also one of the most disputed, with hundreds of scientists refusing to accept it. Yet with less than $100 and a single day’s worth of labor, there’s a way you can prove it to yourself: by building a cloud chamber. An old fishtank, some 100% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol, a metal base with dry ice beneath it and only a few other steps (see the full article for instructions) will allow you to construct a detector capable of seeing unstable cosmic particles. Yet these particles – and you’ll see about 1-per-second – would never reach Earth’s surface if it weren’t for relativity!

Come learn how you can validate Einstein’s first great revolution all for yourself, and silence the doubts in your mind. Nature really is this weird!

Promo video put together by my spouse. Thank you, Kimmy! @k1mberly0 #spaceopera #scifiauthor #booksofinstagram #furtherthanbefore #pathwaytothestars #politicalsciencefiction #longevity #CRISPR #physiology #neuroscience #biotechnology #physiology #physics #theoreticalphysics #biopods #spacecraft #architecture #preservationoflife #strongfemalelead #strongfemalerolemodel #strongmalerolemodel (at Papillion, Nebraska) https://www.instagram.com/p/BtmnWFLg52P/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=t7arij83thzf

I am pleased to announce the New Release of Pathway to the Stars: Part 6.1, Trilogy!!! Continue the journey!

In Eliza's preface to her story, she taught us a lot. Here is one of her quotes, available in the new release:

"We need to overcome our apparent fixation toward and acceptance of suffering, misery, and death—many argue to the contrary. We need to rise up and fight against senescence and death, and if necessary, until our own ends. Doing so will fill our lives with purpose and lead to much more than a dismal and silly existence. Life will be a greater reward if we carry on with the spirit or thought of enabling the future of humanity for the long-haul."

~ Eliza Williams - "Pathway to the Stars: Part 6.1, Trilogy," Appendix

Announcing the Second Space Opera Trilogy! Enjoy the journey!

https://www.youtube.com/embed/YMFQOeOWdNU?feature=oembed&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://safe.txmblr.com&wmode=opaque

Further Than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Tome

This gigantic manuscript consists of the stories in both “Further Than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Part 1 and Part 2” compiled into a gigantic scholarly text, called the “Tome.” For Eliza and her crew of friends, it is a race against time to meet new cultures, preserve life, and share our legacies with distant civilizations, so we can span the Cosmos and go further than before! Purchase this eBook or HEFT this TOME in the printed format and enjoy the entire original Space Opera! The “Further Than Before” series, subtitled “Pathway to the Stars,” consists of all of the stories in an abridged format, ready for people to see what happens before each of the more detailed “Pathway to the Stars” series booklets are released, and is available in a Part 1 and Part 2, which are in-turn compiled into a gigantic scholarly text, called the “Tome.” Eliza Williams, Yesha Alevtina, James Cooper, Vesha Celeste, Sky Taylor and a host of friendly heroes tackle some of the greatest dilemmas of the day to bring humanity out and into the stars bearing a legacy we would be proud to share with other civilizations–a legacy of kindness, of mind-to-mind communication, of love, and of healing instead of harming. If we are to overcome the great expansion and the death of all life, we must overcome the smaller challenges to progress and focus on even greater ones. Eliza and her team work diligently to speed the pace of society in her world with the belief that beauty and untold potential are within every being. If we find ways to bring that out in ourselves and others, a future where we can breed longevity, a collective and high quality of life, augment the clarity of our minds, and innovate to span the Cosmos may be in our grasp. Within the organization Eliza founded, called Pathway, she and her team takes us on a fantastical and near-Utopian journey to get us out and into the farthest reaches of space, as we advance further than we have before, to make this happen. There are dilemmas such as the need for longevity and the ability to visit loved ones following long journeys, and they put in place the capabilities to overcome the effects of space travel on our physiology and neurology. We journey as Eliza, and her growing crew of friends, are determined to stabilize a rocky economy, wipe away undue suffering, violence, disease, terrorism, and trafficking in persons. They work together to tame seismic activity, weather, and fires. She and her friends tackle ways to prevent extinction and provide solutions to quality of life concerns. They even consider the longevity of our Sun and our Earth’s capacity to preserve life. Eliza tackles each of these issues to get us out, and into the stars, so we can begin our biggest quest–to help our Universe breathe ever so lightly. Allowing it to expand and contract ever so gently, may allow us to preserve its life as well as all of life, allowing us to maximize our mental capacity. With intellect, experience, perspective, kindness, and graciousness we will have the ability to gain more wisdom leading to longevity and clarity of mind. For Eliza and her crew of friends, it is a race against time to meet new civilizations, preserve life, share our legacies, and go further than before! Heft this Tome and join me on the entire original Space Opera of this Pathway to the Stars! No matter the challenge, there will always be an opportunity for greater pursuits! #spaceopera #spaceoperabooks #scifibooks #futurism #scifiauthor #sciencefiction #scififantasy #biotech #nanotech #neurotech #spacetravel #solarsystem #sciencefictionbooks Amazon Author Site: https://www.amazon.com/author/matthew… Author Website: https://www.ftb-pathway-publications.com LinkedIn Company Site: https://www.linkedin.com/company/ftb-… Facebook FTB General Group: https://www.facebook.com/groups/Furth… Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/Further-Than… Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/matthewopdyke/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/Besokster Pinterest: https://www.pinterest.com/besokster/

What a nice vantage point :)

The Milky Way seen from a sea cave in Malibu, California

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