Chlamydia Trachomatis conjunctivitis In A Newborn (ophthalmia Neonatorum) Conjunctivitis Is Usually

Immuno

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Archaea

Archaeans are single-celled and join bacteria to make up the Prokaryotes.  The Archaea classification is a very recent discovery, due to the similarities in appearance and behaviour to bacteria they weren’t separated until the late 1970′s. They mostly live in extreme environments and can be sub grouped: 

Methanogens - produce methane gas as a waste product of their “digestion,” or process of making energy.

Halophiles - live in salty environments.

Thermophiles - live at extremely hot temperatures.

Psychrophiles — those that live at unusually cold temperatures.

Like bacteria, archaea lack a true nucleus. Both bacteria and archaea usually have one DNA molecule suspended in the cell’s cytoplasm contained within a cell membrane. Most, but not all, have a tough, rigid outer cell wall.

use a variety of substances for energy, including hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide and sulfur. 

many archaea thrive in conditions mimicking those found more than 3.5 billion years ago. [eg oceans that regularly reached boiling point — an extreme condition not unlike the hydrothermal vents and sulfuric waters where archaea are found today]

Organophosphate poisoning VS Atropine poisoning

Innate Immunity - intro

First line of defence + first to act

A primitive response (exists in animals and some plants)

Non-specialised and without ‘memory’

Consists of:

Physical barriers (eg skin and mucosa//tight junctions, airflow)

Chemical barriers (eg enzymes, lung surfactant, antimicrobals)

Soluble mediators of inflammation (eg cytokines)

Microbal defence (eg commensal competition, secreted antimicrobals)

Cells (eg phagocytes)

Receptors to recognise presence of pathogen/injury - results in inflammation

Soluble Mediators

Complement Proteins

liver-derived 

circulate in serum in inactive form

activated by pathogens during innate response

functions include lysis, chemotaxis and opsonisation

Auxiliary Cells

Mediate inflammation as part of the immune response. The main auxiliary cells involved in the immune response are Basophils, Mast cells and Platelets.

Basophils 

Leukocyte containing granules 

on degranulation release histamine + platelet activating factor

causing increased vascular permeability and smooth muscle contraction

also synthesise and secrete other mediators that control the development of immune system reactions

Mast Cells

Also contain granules 

However they are not circulating cells - found close to blood vessels in all types of tissue especially mucosal and epithelial tissues.

rapidly release inflammatory histamine but this is IgE dependant so not innate

Platelets 

normally function in blood clotting

also release inflammatory mediators

Cytokines and chemokines

Produced by many cells but especially mØ (macrophages), initiate inflammatory response and act on blood vessels 

interferons - antiviral protection

chemokines - recruit cells

interleukines - fever inducing, IL-6 induces acute phase proteins 

IL-1 - encourages leukocytes to migrate to infected/damaged tissue

as does tumour necrosis factor (TNFa)

Acute phase proteins

Liver derived proteins 

plasma concentrations increase (positive acute-phase proteins) or decrease (negative acute-phase proteins) in response to inflammation

called the acute-phase reaction 

triggered by inflammatory cytokines ( IL-1, IL-6, TNFα)

help mediate inflammation ( fever, leukocytosis, increased cortisol, decreased thyroxine, decreased serum iron, etc)

activate complement opsonisation 

Inflammation 

Cells

Cytotoxic Cells

Eosinophils/natural killer cells, cytotoxic T cells

kill target via release of toxic granules 

dendritic cell derived IL-12 helps activate NK cells

Phagocytes

mono-nuclear = long-lived; polynuclear = short-lived

engulf, internalize and destroy 

phagosome forms around microbe

enzyme filled with lysosomes fuses to form phagolysosome

organism is digested

fragments are either ‘presented’ or exocytosed

phagocytosis requires recognition of microbe via receptors for

PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular patterns - eg flagella or capsule) - recognised by toll-like receptors 

activated complement

antibody

The innate immune response primes for the adaptive 

B-cells are primed by activated complement

Th1 cell differentiation needs pro-inflammatory cytokines

 30 . 06 . 2017  Microbiology notes !!!  Yesterday I took my physics final exam and it went great: I got a 27/30, which is way more than what I expected as Physics is one of my worst subjects.  My next exam, microbiology, is in four days and I’m starting to feel a bit anxious about it as it’s a pretty tough exam but I’ll try to do my best ! 

Hey everyone!

 Here (x) is my Microbiology note! Sorry for the delay; I’ve been pretty busy these past few days. Have a lovely week!

Virus Classification

My assistant