Mycobaterium Tuberculosis PATHOGENESIS

-28/11/17-

Had cramps so spent the day writing up microbiology notes whilst hunched over my hot water bottle. The lecture on vaccine design is 7 pages long and now I can hand cramp to my list of ailments…

Some general resources:

Chemistry Glossary

Chemistry Exam Survival Guide

Toolbox – interactive graphing, tables, and calculators

Make virtual chemistry models

Interactive periodic table

Another site for making virtual chemistry models

Virtual labs – covers stoichiometry, thermochemistry, eq1uilibrium, acid base chemistry, solubility, oxidation/reduction and electrochemistry, analytical chemistry/lab techniques

Concept tests

Chemistry Science Fair Project Ideas

OChem Reaction Bank

Interactive chem simulations

Chemical calculations

The Chem Blog

Molecule of the day

Free chemistry drawing software

Laboratory Safety - Laboratory safety for the chemistry classroom

Periodic Table of Videos - Brady Haran

On this day in chemistry… - a history of chemistry

The faces of chemistry

Experimentation hub -  explore and enjoy our experiments to increase engagement in scientific investigation, develop new skills and enhance your knowledge.

Understanding journals - including reading articles, referencing, and example articles.

Resources for specific topics:

Stochiometry – the mole, molarity and density, reaction stoichiometry and limiting reagents, empirical formula and mixtures, gravimetric analysis

Themochemistry – energy and enthalpy, entropy

Kinetics – phenomenological and mechanistic kinetics

Equilibrium – LeChatlier’s principle, progress of reaction, equilibrium calculations, common ion effect

Acid base chemistry – strong acid and bases, weak acids and bases, buffer solutions, acid/base titrations

Solubility – solubility product, solubility and PH, common ion effect

Oxidation/Reduction and Electrochemistry – standard reduction potentials, galvanic cells

Analytical chemistry/ Lab techniques – reaction stoichiometry and limiting reagents, acid/base titrations, redox titrations, gravimetric analysis, UC/Vis spectroscopy

Physical chemistry – quantum mechanics, spectroscopy

Properties of solutions – intermolecular forces, colligative properties

Textbooks:

Chemistry Virtual Textbooks, Stephen Lower

Organic Chemistry, Tim Soderberg

Organic Chemistry I, George Mhehe

Environmental Chemistry, Dejene Tessema

Virtual Organic Chemistry

Industrial Chemistry, Helen Njenga

Inorganic Chemistry, Chrispin Kowenje

Physical Chemistry I, Onesmus Munyaki

General Chemistry, Principles, Patterns and Applications

Chemistry Books - a variety of chemistry textbooks

Chemistry Tutorials/Guides:

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Chemical reactions and stoichiometry

Electronic structure of atoms

Periodic table

Chemical bonds

Gases and kinetic molecular theory

State of matter and intermolecular forces

Chemical equilibrium

Acids and bases

Acid base equilibria and solubility equilibria

Thermodynamics

Redox reactions and electrochemistry

Kinetics

Nuclear chemistry

Organic Chemistry Tutorials/Guidelines:

Structure and bonding

Dot structures

Hybridization

Bond-line structures

Electronegativity

Resonance and acid base chemistry

Counting electrons

Resonance structures

Organic acid-base chemistry

Alkanes, cycloalkanes and functional groups

Naming alkanes

Naming alkanes, cycloalkanes, and bicyclic compounds

Conformations of alkanes

Conformations of cycloalkanes

Functional groups

Stereochemistry

Chirality

Enantiomers

Stereoisomeric relationships

Subsituation and elimination reactions

Free radical reaction

Sn1 vs Sn2

Nucleophilicity and basicity

Elimination reactions

Sn1/Sn2/E1/E2

Sn1 and Sn2

Alkenes and alkynes

Naming alkenes

Alkene reactions

Alkene nomenclature

Alkene reactions

Naming and preparing alkynes

Alkyne reactions

Alcohols, ethers, epoxides, sulphides

Alcohol nomenclature and properties

Synthesis of alcohols

Reactions of alcohols

Nomenclature and properties of ethers

Synthesis and cleavage of ethers

Nomenclature and preparation of epoxides

Conjugation, Diels-Alder, and MO theory

Addition reactions of conjugated dienes

Diels-Alder reaction

Molecular orbital theory

Aromatic compounds

Naming benzene derivatives

Reactions of benzene

Aromatic stability

Electrophilic aromatic substitution

Directing effects

Other reactions and synthesis

Aldehydes and ketones

Introduction to aldehydes and ketones

Reactions of aldehydes and ketones

Carboxylic acids and derivatives

Naming carboxylic acids

Formation of carboxylic acid derivatives

Nomenclature and reactions of carboxylic acids

Nomenclature and reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives

Alpha carbon chemistry

Formation of enolate anions

Aldol condensations

Amines

Naming amines

Spectroscopy

Infrared Spectroscopy

UV/Vis Spectroscopy

proton NMR

Careers:

A future in Chemistry

What can I do with my chemistry degree?

Chemistry Careers - American Chemical Society

What to do with a degree in chemistry - The Guardian

This bedroom is soooo pretty, this colour palette is everything.

Hope it helps @shreeparn  :)

….and that is how viruses go about their non-lives!!

my biology professor at the end of a lecture about viruses, presumably, i wouldn’t know, i wasn’t paying attention, i’m using context clues here (via scienceprofessorquotes)

My revised pnemonic for ADP ribosylation A-B toxins

Boring     and      serious      people score high in usmle…

Bordetella pertussis and B.cereus  increases   cAMP by inhibiting Gi

Cool    and     Vibrant   people  also score high…

E. coli  and Vibreo cholerae increases cAMP by  activating Gs

Exception: Please please please remember that  Bacillus anthracis has an edema factor which it self acts as adenylate cyclase…. no ADP ribosylation involved..so hence  cAMP level increases.

Antimicrobial Agents - Inhibition of DNA and Protein Synthesis

Bacterial chromosome replication

DNA replication

Bacterial Topoisomerases 

maintain DNA in appropriate state of supercoiling 

cut and reseal DNA

DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) introduces negative supercoils 

Topoisomerase IV decatenates circular chromosomes 

these are the targets of the quinolone antibacterial agents 

Quinolones

bind to bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV after DNA strand breakage 

prevent resealing of DNA 

disrupt DNA replication and repair 

bactericidal (kill bacteria)

Fluoroquinolone is particularly useful against

Gram +ves: Staphylococcus aureus, streptococci 

Gram -ves: Enterobacteriacea; Pseudomonas aeruginosa 

Anaerobes: e.g. Bacteroides fragilis 

many applications e.g. UTIs, prostatitis, gastroenteritis, STIs 

Adverse effects

Relatively well tolerated

GI upset in ~ 5% of patients 

allergic reactions (rash, photosensitivity) in 1 - 2% of patients 

Inhibition of Bacterial Protein Synthesis 

Macrolides 

in 1952: Erythromycin was isolated as the first macrolide (Streptomyces erythreus) 

Newer macrolides: clarithromycin, azithromycin 

Structurally they consist of a lactone ring (14- to 16-membered) + two attached deoxy sugars 

Mode of action 

bind reversibly to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunit 

causes growing peptide chain to dissociate from ribosome → inhibiting protein synthesis 

bacteriostatic (stops reproduction)

Macrolides’ spectrum of activity

good antistaphylococcal and antistreptococcal activity 

treatment of respiratory & soft tissue infections and sensitive intracellular pathogens • e.g. Chlamydia, Legionella 

Adverse effects

Generally well tolerated

nausea 

vomiting 

diarrhoea 

rash 

Aminoglycosides

large family of antibiotics produced by various species of Streptomyces (“mycin”) and Micromonospora (“micin”) 

include: streptomycin, neomycin, kanamycin, gentamicins, tobramycin 

Structure = linked ring system composed of aminosugars and an aminosubstituted cyclic polyalcohol 

Mode of action of aminoglycosides

Bind irreversibly to 30S ribosomal subunit 

disrupt elongation of nascent peptide chain 

translational inaccuracy → defective proteins 

bactericidal 

Spectrum of activity 

broad spectrum; mainly aerobic G-ve bacilli (e.g. P. aeruginosa) 

used to treat serious nosocomial infections (hospital acquired infections)

First TB antibiotic

Used for cystic fibrosis 

Adverse effects

all aminoglycosides have low Therapeutic Index (only a small amount needed to become toxic)

renal damage, ototoxicity, loss of balance, nausea 

Haematology

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)

Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils = granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes)

Monocytes & lymphocyes = mononuclear

Neutrophils

Most numerous (~60% of WBC)

Nucleus divided into lobes

Cytoplasm contains small granules

Stains pink with Romanowsky dyes

Lifespan of 6-10hrs

Exit into tissues - non-specific defence against bacteria and fungi

Eosinophils

1% of circulating leukocytes 

Large cytoplasmic granules - stain strongly with acidic dye eosin

Nucleus is bilobed

Circulate for 4-5hrs

Exit to tissues –> 

Defence against parasites 

Dampen allergic response

Tissue eosinophils are also capable of responding to bacterial and fungal infection in a similar way to neutrophils.

Basophils

Least numerous (<1%)

Large granules stain strongly with basic dye methylene blue

Involved in anaphylactic hypersensitivity and inflammatory reactions

Monocytes

5% of circulating leukocytes

Large cell

Kidney/clefted shaped nucleus

Scattering of delicate azurophilic granules

Circulate for 10hrs

Mature into phagocytic tissue macrophages

Responsible for the removal of aged RBCs and other debris

Process and present antigens to T-lymphocytes 

(Macrophages are formed in response to an infection or accumulating damaged or dead cells. Large, specialized cells that recognize, engulf and destroy target cells.)

Lymphocytes

Second most common leukocyte (33%)

Much less cytoplasm - nucleus almost fills cell

Variable lifespan

Receptors on surface recognise foreign substances

Several types of lymphocyte - click here

I have decided to share how I revise for math since math has always been one of my best subjects.

Do homework. This may not seem crucial but it is important as homework helps you to revise what you have learnt in class.

Ask when you are in doubt. This is pretty self explanatory but math is essentially a subject which builds on what you have learnt in the past. Thus, your foundation for math must be strong. Ask your teacher asap when you don’t understand the concept.

Do assessment books. Books like the ten year series is important to give you a feel of what o-level math examinations questions are like. Basically, just do assessment books to prepare for whatever major examinations you are attending for.

Revise all of your worksheets, textbook and notes. Improving math, be better at solving equations, etc is all about practicing. You can try redoing all the questions in your textbook, notes and worksheets.

Alternatively, you can also come up with your own questions simply by changing the values in a sample question.

There are also lots of resources out there such as Photomath and Khan Academy (these are the ones I personally use) which helps you to better grasp the mathematical concept.

It is the most important to remember the formulas. I usually write down all the formulas I need to remember on the formulas printable designed by @emmastudies

Math problems are pretty standard so you can try to familiarise the method used to solve certain hard problemsums.

Lastly, definitely do not try to cram math. Math has a lot of topics so it is not a good idea to study the day before.

How tos

How I study math by @grangerproductivity

How I study mathematics by @aescademic

How to ace your next math test by @concentrationandtea

How to avoid carelessness in calculations by @ugly-postcards

How to do well in math by @rhubarbstudies

How to easily remember the unit of circles by @rebrobindoesmath

How to math by @studybuzz

How to study for math by @nostalgicstudyblr

How to study math by @blogisclosed

How to study math by @studyquill

How to study math by @study-well

How to study math when you hate it by @thecanadianundergradmoved

How to succeed in math by @gracefullywitty

How to take notes Math by @thestudiouspanda

Tips, techniques and tricks

Math study and exam tips by @studymelody

Tips for mathematics by @studyingnic

Top 5 math tips by @etudiance

Trick for remembering trigonometric values by @study-math

Math studying technique by @lunastudy

9 Unnecessary ways to lose points on math assessments

Don’t let calculus d(e)rive you mad by @biopsychs

“Conquering” math by @thestudyfeels

Guides

Algebra 2 by @parisgellerstudy

AP Calculus by @hollohat

Maths: a survival guide by @ashleigh-studies

Formulas and equations

Formulas by @maxwellsequations

Magic trig hexagons by @collegesavviness

Geometric formulas by @chaosophia218

Trigonometry by @visualizingmath

Reference by @badsciencejokes

Graphical equations by @littlemusicalwitch

Formulas and equations printable by @rosallindfranklin

Pythagoras theorem explained by @leetakeuchi-blog

Resources

Khan academy

Photomath by @asukastudies

Desmos graphing calculator

Life saving resources for studying math by @mathbrain

Math masterpost by @pythagaoras

Math aid by @allwriteokay

Precalculus by @etudiance

Other masterposts

Maths masterpost by @acadehmic

A maths masterpost by @organisaticns

Math by @areistotle

Maths masterpost by @highlightcrs

Calc ap study guide by @komlin

Other masterposts by me

Printables

Self care

College

Ace your exams

Apps for students

Note taking